Abdul Hamid II (1876โ1909) was the 34th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire and the last effective ruler to exercise absolute power over the empire. His reign marked a critical turning point in Ottoman history โ a period of intense modernization and reform, coupled with autocratic rule, censorship, and political repression. He is remembered both for his pan-Islamic policies and for his authoritarian governance, earning him a complex legacy that is debated to this day.
- Full Name: Abdul Hamid bin Abdulmejid
- Titles: Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, Caliph of Islam
- Reign: August 31, 1876 โ April 27, 1909
- Dynasty: Ottoman
- Father: Sultan Abdulmejid I
- Mother: Tirimรผjgan Kadฤฑn
- Predecessor: Murad V
- Successor: Mehmed V
- Capital: Istanbul
- Age at Accession: 34
- Age at Death: 76 (in 1918)
๐ง Early Life and Education
Abdul Hamid II was born on September 21, 1842, in Istanbul. As the son of Sultan Abdulmejid I, he was given a thorough education in Islamic sciences, languages, music, and statecraft. He was known for being intelligent, cautious, and politically astute. His early years were shaped by the Tanzimat era (a period of reform), and he witnessed the increasing Western influence in Ottoman politics.
๐๏ธ Ascension to the Throne
He came to power after the deposition of Murad V, who was declared mentally unfit to rule. Abdul Hamid II was seen as a suitable candidate to implement constitutional reforms due to Western pressure and internal instability.
Just three months into his reign, he proclaimed the first Ottoman Constitution (Kanรปn-ฤฑ Esรขsรฎ) in December 1876, marking the start of the First Constitutional Era.
โ๏ธ Key Events and Policies
๐ 1. The First Constitutional Era (1876โ1878):
- The constitution promised a parliamentary system, civil liberties, and a more modern state.
- However, due to the outbreak of the Russo-Turkish War (1877โ1878) and increasing political instability, Abdul Hamid suspended the constitution and dissolved the parliament in 1878, initiating autocratic rule.
๐ 2. Pan-Islamism:
- Abdul Hamid used his position as Caliph to unite Muslims worldwide under the Ottoman banner.
- He promoted Islamic education, sent religious scholars abroad, and tried to rally support among Muslims in British India, North Africa, and Central Asia.
- He expanded the Hijaz Railway project to link Damascus to Medina, easing pilgrimage to Mecca.
๐๏ธ 3. Modernization and Reforms:
- Despite being authoritarian, he continued modernization:
- Telegraph and railway networks expanded.
- New schools and technical institutes were founded.
- Modern bureaucracies and civil service were strengthened.
- His reign also saw improvements in healthcare, education, and urban planning.
๐ง 4. Censorship and Surveillance:
- Abdul Hamid II is known for implementing one of the most sophisticated surveillance and censorship systems in Ottoman history.
- Newspapers, books, and even conversations were monitored to suppress dissent.
- Secret police (jurnalcis) reported directly to the Sultan, creating a culture of fear among bureaucrats and intellectuals.
๐ฐ 5. Armenian Question and Repression:
- The Armenian population sought reforms and autonomy, which Abdul Hamid resisted.
- The Hamidian Massacres (1894โ1896) led to the deaths of tens of thousands of Armenians and drew international condemnation.
- These events further isolated the empire diplomatically and hurt the Sultanโs image abroad.
๐ด Decline and Deposition
In the early 1900s, the Young Turks, a reformist group within the Ottoman Empire, gained momentum.
๐น Second Constitutional Era (1908):
- Under pressure from the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP), Abdul Hamid was forced to reinstate the 1876 Constitution in July 1908.
- However, his attempts to undermine the new constitutional order failed.
๐น 31 March Incident (1909):
- A conservative uprising in April 1909, seen as an attempt to restore the Sultanโs autocracy, was quickly crushed.
- On April 27, 1909, Abdul Hamid II was deposed by the CUP and replaced by his brother Mehmed V.
๐ฐ Exile and Death
After his deposition, Abdul Hamid II was exiled to Salonica (modern Thessaloniki), then returned to Istanbul in 1912 and kept under house arrest in the Beylerbeyi Palace.
He spent the last nine years of his life in quiet confinement and died on February 10, 1918, just months before the end of World War I and the eventual collapse of the empire.
๐ Legacy
Abdul Hamid II remains a polarizing figure in history.
โ Achievements:
- Promoted Islamic unity and Ottoman identity.
- Expanded infrastructure (railways, telegraph lines, schools).
- Strengthened the military and administrative apparatus.
โ Criticism:
- Accused of brutal repression, especially of Armenians and dissenters.
- Implemented heavy censorship and secret police surveillance.
- Suspended constitutional rule for three decades.
๐ Summary
Abdul Hamid II (1876โ1909) was the last powerful Ottoman Sultan, ruling during a time of immense transformation. Initially embracing constitutional reform, he soon reverted to absolute rule, championing pan-Islamism and extensive modernization, while suppressing political dissent. His reign witnessed both technological progress and human rights abuses, particularly during the Hamidian Massacres. Overthrown in 1909 by the Young Turks, Abdul Hamid spent his final years in exile and died in 1918. His legacy remains deeply contested โ seen by some as a reformer-caliph, and by others as a repressive autocrat.
